The+Christian+kingdoms

**__ UNIT 6 THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS __** After the Muslim invasion, many Visigoths took refuge in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, where they founded Christian kingdoms between the 8th and 9th centuries. From there, they started the Reconquest. The **Kingdom of** **Asturias and León** originated in the mountain ranges of Cantabria and the **Kingdom of** **Navarre** and the **Aragonese** and **Catalan counties** in the Pyrenees. These kingdoms coexisted with Al-Andalus for eight hundred years. In 718, the Visigoths in Cantabria chose **Pelayo** as their king, who defeated the Muslims at the **Battle of Covadonga**. The court established in Oviedo, and the Asturian kings began to expand their territory. The greatest expansion coincided with the reign of **Alfonso III** (866-910). In the 10th century, the capital was moved to León, and the region became the **Kingdom of León**. Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, the Muslims attacked León. Castile provided defense against Muslim attacks. It was divided into counties under Count **Fernán González** (930-970). When León began to decline, Castile became an independant kingdom in 1035. The Pyrenean region formed the **Spanish March** within the **Carolingian Empire**. In the 9th century, the Carolingian Empire dissolved. Three different independent regions were formed: Navarre, Aragón and the Catalan counties. After the conquest, there were three main cultures: **Christian, Islamic** and **Jewish**. These groups usually lived separately. They did not intermarry, and they had their own customs. The Christians were the dominant group. The Mudejar situation started to deteriorate in the 13th century, and many of them emigrated to Granada. The relation of the Jews with the other groups were tense. They were sometimes persecuted. Castile gradually became the most powerful kingdom. In 1085, **Alfonso VI** conquered Toledo, and the Tajo valley fell into Castilian hands. After Navas de Tolosa (1212), the Christian kings conquered almost all of Andalusia. However, in the 12th century, **Portugal** became independent. In 1230, **Ferdinand III** united Castile and León, and founded the **Crown of Castile**.
 * SOCIAL STUDIES. Summaries in English **
 * CHRISTIAN RESISTANCE **
 * ASTURIAS AND LEÓN **
 * CASTILE **
 * THE PYRENEAN REGION **
 * ** The Kingdom of Navarre ** . During the reign of **Sancho III the Great** (1000-1035), Navarra became the most powerful Christian kingdom. However, this kingdom broke up after his death.
 * ** The Aragonese counties. ** This region achieved independence from Navarre after the death of Sancho III.
 * ** The Catalan counties. ** In 874, **Wilfred the Hairy** united the Catalan counties. He ruled them independently. Catalonia consolidated its independence in the 10th century.
 * THE ART OF THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS **
 * ASTURIAN ART ** developed between the 8th and 10th centuries. The best examples are small stone churches near Oviedo, such as San Miguel de Lillo and Santa María del Naranco, which was originally built as a palace but later used as a church.
 * MOZARABIC ART ** emerged in the Christian kingdoms in the 10th century. It was developed by the Mozarabs who had run away from Al-Andalus. The interiors of the churches are similar to Muslim art. The best example is **San Miguel de Escalada** in León. The //beatus//, a religious manuscript with beautiful illustrations, is also characteristic of this art. A famous example is the **Beatus of Liébana**.
 * MUDEJAR ART ** emerged in the 12th century in Sahagún (León). Mudejar was the name given to the Muslims who remained in the Christian Kingdoms after the Reconquest. They used bricks and ceramic tiles for constructing their buildings.
 * THE EXPANSION OF THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS **
 * The Duero valley ** . The Reconquest involved the occupation of territory from one river valley to another. During the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christian kingdoms advanced south to this valley. It was not a military advance; groups of peasants colonised the land and formed small villages in a process of **repopulation**.
 * The Tajo and Ebro valleys ** . In 1031, Al-Andalus was divided into taifas, which paid parias to the Christian kings. Portugal, Castile, Aragón and Catalonia extended their dominions. Conquered territory was divided into areas dominated by a **city** or **town**. In order to encourage emigration, the kings gave privileges called **fueros** to the towns. Much of the land was underpopulated. It was given to **military orders**, which created large **feudal estates**.
 * The Guadalquivir valley, Levante and the Balearic Islands ** . In 1212, the Muslims lost the Battle of **Las Navas de Tolosa**. This tourning-point opened up Al-Andalus to the Christian armies. Portugal conquered the Algarve, Castile took over Andalusia and Murcia, and the Crown of Aragón expanded into Valencia and the Balearic Islands.
 * THREE CULTURES **
 * THE CROWN OF CASTILE **
 * Government. ** The Crown of Castile was a unified state. The king had great power. The Castilian **Cortes** could not legislate. Their function was to approve or reject new taxes.
 * Economy and society. ** The economy was based on **agriculture** and **stockbreeding**. Merino sheep were very important. The sheep breeders held assemblies, called **mestas**, to discuss their problems. In 1273, the **Honourable Council of the Mesta** was created. It was very powerful. The sale of wool contributed to the development of **craftsmanship** and trade. **Trade fairs**, like those held in Medina del Campo, were very important.
 * Architecture. ** There are interesting examples of the Romanesque style in Castile, such as the churches of San Martín de Frómista in Palencia, and part of the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela. There are also outstanding examples of the Gothic style, such as the cathedral of León, Burgos and Toledo.
 * THE CROWN OF ARAGÓN **
 * The Crown of Aragón ** was created in the 12th century. The first king of Aragón was **Alfonso I the Battler**, who conquered Zaragoza in 1118, and then other lands in the Ebro valley. In the 13th century, the Crown of Aragón expanded around the Mediterranean. **James I the Conqueror** took Valencia, Alicante, Murcia and the Balearic Islands. **Peter the Great** and his successors conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Naples.
 * Government ** . The Crown of Aragón was made up of the Catalan counties and the kingdoms of Aragón, Valencia and Mallorca. Each territory keeps its own institutions and customs. The king of Aragón could not establish new taxes or laws without the approval of the Cortes of each kingdom. The **Generalitat** in Catalonia and Valencia, and the **Justicia** in Aragón, ensured that the **fueros** were respected.
 * Economy ** . Most of the population lived from agriculture, although the Crown of Aragón traded with many countries.
 * Culture ** . There are important examples of the Romanesque style, such as the Monastery of San Juan de la Peña in Huesca. Gothic buildings include the cathedral of Barcelona, Palma de Mallorca and the markets in Valencia and Palma.